Author: Nihon Ninja (200.157.34.---)
Date: 03-12-02 14:14
ARCHITECTURE
A harmonious coexistence of tradition and innovation
The Development of Japanese Architecture
Buddhist Archtecture//Shinto Architecture//Design Concept//Modern Architecture
Historically, architecture in Japan was influenced by Chinese architecture, although the differences between the two are many. Whereas the exposed wood in Chinese buildings is painted, in Japanese buildings it traditionally has not been. Also, Chinese architecture was based on a lifestyle that included the use of chairs, while in Japan people customarily sat on the floor (a custom that began to change in the Meiji period (1868-1912).
Architecture in Japan has also been influenced by the climate. Summers in most of Japan are long, hot, and humid, a fact that is clearly reflected in the way homes are built. The traditional house is raised somewhat so that the air can move around and beneath it. Wood was the material of choice because it is cool in summer, warm in winter, and more flexible when subjected to earthquakes.
In the Asuka period (593-710), Buddhism was introduced into Japan from China, and Buddhist temples were built in the continental manner. From this time on, Buddhist architecture had a profound influence on architecture in Japan.
In the Nara period (710-794), a capital city called Heijokyo was laid out in Nara in a manner similar to the Chinese capital, whereby streets were arranged in a checker-board pattern. Horyuji Temple, built under the increasing influence of Buddhism in 607, is the oldest wooden structure in the world. It was registered as a UNESCO World Heritage property in 1993.
In the Heian period (794-1185), the homes of the nobility were built in the shinden-zukuri style, in which the main buildings and sleeping quarters stood in the center and were connected to other surrounding apartments by corridors. Tosanjo Palace (1043) was an example of this style.
Tea cottages, built when the tea ceremonybecame popular in the Muromachi period (1333-1568), employed a style called sukiya-zukuri, characterized by a delicate sensibility, slender wood elements, and unornamented simplicity. Kyoto's Katsura Rikyu is a prime example of this style. People liked the harmony formed by the cottage and the landscape garden.
In the sixteenth century, when feudal lords dominated Japanese society, many castles were built. Though constructed for military defense, these castles were also used to enhance the lords' prestige. A few of them remain today, admired especially for their tenshukaku (watchtowers). The living rooms inside the castles were tastefully decorated, and rooms for reading and waiting were developed in a style known as shoin-zukuri. The Shiroshoin at Nishi-Hongenji in Kyoto, a National Treasure of Japan, is an example of this style.
After the Meiji Restoration, Western architecture was introduced in Japan. Stone and brick came to be used in construction. In more recent times, the trend is toward the construction of buildings that incorporate aspects of traditional Japanese architecture, using modern technology and new materials.
*Buddhist Architecture
*The Development of Japanese Architecture//Shinto Architecture//Design Concept//Modern Architecture
When Buddhism came to Japan in the sixth century, places dedicated to the worship of Buddha were constructed, their architectural forms originating in China and Korea. In each temple compound, a number of buildings w~re erected to serve the needs of the monks or nuns who lived there and, as importantly, to provide facilities where lay worshippers could gather.
In the eighth century, a group of buildings comprised 7 basic structures: the pagoda, main hall, lecture hall, bell tower, repository for sutras, dormitory, and dining hall. Enclosing the entire temple compound was an earthen wall with gates on each side. It was common for a gate to have 2 stories. The main hall contained the most prominent object of worship. The lecture hall, which in early temples was most often the largest structure, was used by monks as a place for study, instruction, or for performing rituals.
Two types of towers predominated: one with bells that announced the times of religious observance each day and another in which canonical texts were stored (the sutra repository). Behind or to the side of the inner precinct stood refectories and dormitories.
In the early days of Buddhism in Japan, pagodas were positioned in the center of the compound because they held sacred relics, which were the main objects of worship.
Shinto Architecture
The Development of Japanese Architecture//Buddhist Archtecture//Design Concept//Modern Architecture
Followers of Shinto believe that a kami (deity) exists in virtually every natural object or phenomenon, from active volcanoes and beautiful mountains to trees, rocks, and waterfalls. Shinto shrines are places where kami are enshrined, and also where people can worship.
Rather than follow a set arrangement, shrine buildings are situated according to the environment. From a precinct's distinctive torii gate, a path or roadway leads to the main shrine building, with the route marked by stone lanterns. To preserve the purity of the shrine precinct, water basins are provided so that worshippers can wash their hands and mouths. And komainu, pairs of lionlike figures placed in front of the gates or main halls of many shrines, serve as shrine guardians.
Temporary main halls were constructed to house the kami on special occasions. This style of building is said to date from about 300 B.C. The main shrine building of the Sumiyoshi Shrine in Osaka is similar to this temporary building type and is thought to preserve the appearance of ancient religious buildings.
The other major style for the main hall draws its simple shape from the granaries and treasure storehouses of prehistoric Japan. The best example of this style is the Ise Shrine, in Mie Prefecture. Its inner shrine is consecrated to Amaterasu Omikami, the sun goddess. The outer shrine is dedicated to the grain goddess, Toyouke no Omikami.
Elements of residential architecture can be seen in the main building of the Izumo Shrine in Shimane Prefecture, as evidenced by columns set directly into the ground and elevated floors.
The nature of Shinto worship changed, following the introduction of Buddhism, and shrine buildings borrowed certain elements from Buddhist architecture. For example, many shrines were painted in the Chinese style: red columns and white walls.
It was a tradition to reconstruct shrine buildings regularly to purify the site and renew the materials (a practice still followed at the Ise Shrine). For this reason, also as a result of fire and other natural disasters, the oldest extant main shrine buildings date back only to the eleventh and twelfth centuries.
Design Concept
The Development of Japanese Architecture//Buddhist Archtecture//Shinto Architecture//Modern Architecture
The interior of Japanese houses in the past was virtually open, without even screens to partition off individual spaces. Gradually, as more thought was given to particular areas and their functions, such as eating, sleeping, or dressing, self-standing screens (byobu) came into use. Paper-covered sliding doors (shoji or fusuma), which we still find in traditional homes, came afterward. Though they serve poorly as sound barriers, they do provide some privacy and can be removed to open up the entire space (except, of course, for the columns that support the house). Shoji also admit light.
The way in which Japanese view the interior and the exterior of the house is another key aspect of traditional design. Instead of seeing the inside and outside as 2 distinctly different environments, they are thought of as being continuous elements. This concept is embodied in the Japanese veranda (engawa), which acts as a kind of transition space from inside to outside the house. Nure-en, which is fixed to the side of the house and gets wet when it rains, is a variation of the engawa.
From an aesthetic standpoint, the traditional house is designed for people who are seated, not standing. Doors, windows, and alcoves are placed so that both artwork in the house and the garden outside can be viewed appropriately from a sitting position.
Despite the changes that modernization has brought to the style of houses, the traditional Japanese style has not vanished. Even in the Westernized houses, it is still usual to find a room whose floor is covered over with tatami (the Japanese mat), and it is still the custom for people to remove their shoes before entering the house.
Modern Architecture
The Development of Japanese Architecture//Buddhist Archtecture//Shinto Architecture//Design Concept
Modern architectural techniques were introduced into Japan with the launch of the Meiji Restoration in 1868. The first buildings to result from this effort combined traditional Japanese methods of wood construction with Western methods and designs. An elementary school in Nagano Prefecture became the standard and prototype for schools built throughout the land.
In the 1880s, reactionary opinion turned against the rush toward Westernization, even in architecture, and Asian models were advocated. After World War I, traditional Japanese architecture underwent a reassessment when architects like Frank Lloyd Wright (1869-1959) of the United States and Bruno Taut (1880-1938) of Germany came to work in Japan.
The years following World War II saw a continuation of efforts to reconcile traditional and modern architecture. Tange Kenzo, one of Japan's most famous and influential post-war architects, managed to fuse traditional Japanese architecture with scientific and technological advancements. In the 1950s and '60s he designed several striking edifices, including the Yoyogi National Stadium for the 1964 Olympic Games in Tokyo.
For Japan, which is frequently hit by earthquakes, development of earthquake-resistant construction has always been a major problem in architecture. The first skyscraper of Japan, the Kasumigaseki Building, was completed in 1968, having made use of the latest earthquake-resistant technology. A number of skyscrapers were built thereafter, including those in Nishi-Shinjuku in Tokyo and the Landmark Tower (296 meters high) in Yokohama.
A redirecting of architectural priorities away from unmitigated commercialization was led by Isozaki Arata, who as a young man had worked under Tange. His work and writings had a great influence on the younger generation of architects. The 1970s also saw the appearance of architects who stressed an artistic approach to architecture, a departure from the previous emphasis on technical expertise.
Domestic architects' offices were kept busy during the high-riding decade of the '80s, as were some major foreign architects who were invited to work in Japan. The collapse of the "bubble economy" of Japan in the early '90s caused a slowdown in the architecture industry. Many Japanese architects, however, are still highly ranked in Japan and elsewhere, and a large number of foreign architects find business markets in Japan, a trend that has spread even to local areas. Among some outstanding works of the '90s are the Tokyo International Forum (1997) and the Tokyo Metropolitan Government Office (1991), both by Tange Kenzo.
In the '80s and '90s, Japanese architects were recruited increasingly for overseas assignments. Among them were Isozaki, to do the Museum of Contemporary Art in Los Angeles; Kurokawa Kisho, for the Pacific Tower in Paris, France; Maki Fumihiko, for the Floating Pavilion of the Groningen Festival in Holland; Tange, for Singapore's OUB Center and for city planning in Shanghai and Guangzhou, China; and Ando Tadao, for the Meditation Tower at the UNESCO complex in Paris. Ando has been especially well received abroad. He has taken several international prizes such as the Pritzker Architecture Prize, given by the Hyatt Foundation in 1995, and the Royal Gold Medal for architecture, awarded by the Royal Institute of British Architects in 1997.
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